My 3 posts for grading

Mdm Riza, my posts are 24 January, 1 February and 1 March

1st March 2011

Today we started on a new topic, chemical changes.

Chemical changes:
- permanent
- new substances formed

- irreversable

- involves chemical change
- heat/light energy may be taken in or given out

- properties of starting reactants differ from products
- for example, cooking, burning of charcoal and steel rusting

Physical change:

- temporary
- no new substances formed
- reversable

- does not involve chemical change

- no/little light or heat energy is given in or taken out

- properties of substances do not change
- for example, changes in state and dissolving salt

Chemical reactions:
- changing reactants into products
- provides identies of reactants and products
- provides possible reaction possibilities
- represented using chemical equations

- can be written using word or chemical equation

Balanced chemical equation:

1) write down chemical formulae of reactants and products

2) check atoms of each elements on both sides of the reaction

3) balance the chemical equation by placing numbers in front of the element in the question

- for example, N3+H2=NH3
N2+3H2=2NH3

Chemical equations involving heat

- combustion

- combination

- thermal decomposition

Combustion:

- burning

- substance combine with oxygen in the air
- products are heat and light

- octane+oxygen+heat=carbon dioxide+water

Combnation:
- two or more reactants combine chemically to form a new product

- sodium+chlorine=sodium chloride

Thermal decompositon:

- a substance breaks down into two or more simpler substances(decomposition)
- a substance breaks down by the effect of heat(thermal decomposition

-sugar+heat=carbon+water vapour

chemical reactions involving light:

- photosynthesis

- photography

Photosynthesis:

- green plants in the presence of chlorophyll and light energy manufacture carbohydrates(glucose) from carbon dioxide and water

- carbon dioxide+water+light energy+chlorophyll=glucose+water

Photography:

- photographic films are coated with silver bromide

- when films are exposed to light, silver bromide decomposes to form silver particles

- silver bromide+light energy=silver+bromine

Electrolysis;

- passing electric currents may change the propeties of the substance temporarily or permanently

- some substances decomposes into simpler ones when electricity is passed through

- electroplatimg

Chemical reactions involving matter:
- digestion

- neutralisation
- rusting

Digestion:

- involves chemical reactions caused by mixing

- when saliva and starch are mixed, the enzymes in the saliva break down the food

Neutralisation

- when an acid and alkali is mixed, salt and water is formed

- hydrochloric acid+sodium hydroxide=sodium chloride+water

Rusting
- iron comes in contact with oxygen in the air and water

- combination

- iron+oxygen+water=hydrated iron(III)oxide

1st February 2011

Today, we started on the topic atoms and molecules and finished the chapter on the next subsequent lessons.

Atom:

An atom is a basic building block of life. an element is in its simplest form and an atom is the smallest particle of an element. Atoms belonging to the same element would be the same while atoms of other elements would be different. Atoms are made up of three sub-atomic particles called the electrons, the protons and the neutrons.

Sub atomic particles:
protons:
- positively charged(+1)

- has the mass of 1 unit

- is found in the nucleus.

neutron:
- electrically neutral

- has the mass of 1 unit

- is found in the nucleus

electrons:
- negatively charged(-1)
- has the mass of 1/2000 unit
- it orbits around the nucleus in electron shells.

Mass number and proton/atomic number:
The proton/atomic number can be found on the bottom of a chemical symbol in a periodic table while the mass number is the one at the top of the symbol. The chemical symbol is represented by the letters.

The atomic/proton number is the number of protons in a atom. Since all atoms are neutral, the number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons.

The mass number is the the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom. It can also be called the nucleon number. So to find out the number of neutrons there are in an atom, simply subtract the proton number from the mass number.

Electronic configuration:
The electrons in an atom orbit around the nucleus in regions known as the electron shell. The first electron shell can only hold 2 electrons while the subsequent shells can hold eight electrons each. Arrangement of the electrons is called an atoms electronic configuration or electronic structure. The arrangement of electrons determine the chemical properties of the atom.

For example, Lithium has so its electronuc configuration is 2.1. Magnesium has 12 electrons so its electronic configuration is 2.8.2.

ions:
- An ion is a changed particle formed from an atom or a group of atoms by the loss or gain of electrons.

- An ion is formed when an atom loses or gains electrons.

- The number of protons will be different from the number electrons.

- If the atom loses electrons, there are more protons than electrons so the atom will be positively charged.

- If the atom gains electrons, there are less protons than electrons so the atom will be negatively charged.
- Ions can only be formed through chemical reactions.

- Only electrons are able to move in or out of the atom as the protons are packed in the nucleus while the electrons are orbiting around the nucleus.

- Metals loses electrons while non-metals gains electrons.
- Example 1: a megnesium atom has 12 protons and 12 electrons and its electronic configuration is 2.8.2, so it will lose 2 electrons to become a positively-charged ion. So a magnesium ion has 12 protons and 10 electrons.

- Example 2: a chlorine atom has 17 protons and 17 electrons and its electronic configuration is 2.8.7, so it will gain 1 electron to become a negatively-charged ion. So a chloride ion has 17 protons and 18 electrons.

- Positively-charged ions are known as cations while negatively-charged ions are known as anions.

Noble gases:
- Noble gases are elements like helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.

- They are found at the most right column.

- The atoms of noble gases are unreactive or chemically stable.

- They do not cmbine witn other atoms or form compounds.

- Exist as an individual(monatonic)

- The electronic configuration of a noble gas can exist as an octet or duplet.

- A duplet contains 2 electrons while a octet has electrons 8 electrons on the outer ring.

Molecules:

- Some atoms combine with others to form molecules
- These atoms often exist as a molecule rather than a single atom.

- A molecule is made up of 2 or more atoms chemically combined together.

Molecules of elements:

- Usually consist of a fixed number of one type atoms chemically combined together.

- Many non-metals exist as molecules.

- Example: oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen.

- Molecules of elements are held by single, double or triple bonds.
- For example, hydrogen is held by single bond, oxygen is held by double bond and nitrogen is held by triple bond.
- Hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen have 2 atoms of the same type, this is known as a diatomic molecules as it contains 2 atoms.

- All elements from group 7 like chlorine, bromine and iodine will form diatomic molecules.

Molecules of compounds:

- It is formed when different types of atoms combine together.

- They contain a fixed number of different types of molecules chemically combined together.
- The number of atoms in each type of molecule does not change.

- Examples: water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen chloride (HCL).
- A compound can be represented by a compound formula.

- A chemical formula tells us the types of atoms present and the ratio of the different atoms present.

- For example: Glucose: contains 6 carbon atoms, 12 hydrogen atoms and 6 oxygen atoms. (C6H12O6)

24th Jan 2011

Particulate model of matter

Today, we went through some worksheets on the topic particulate model of matter. I did not type the post for the topic the other time so I will use this post to explain the topic. Since we did some holiday assignment based on this topic, so we had some basic knowledge on this chapter. We also learned some parts of this chapter in Primary School.

Diffusion

The process whereby particles of matter move from one region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. e.g. spreading of smells like cooking or perfumes.

The rate if diffusion is based on the temperature. The relative moleculiar mass also affects the diffusion rate.

Kinetic particle theory

Matter is made up of tiny particles that are always in constant motion. The kinetic energy of a particle changes with temperature.

particulate model of matter

Solids:

-Have fixed shapes

-Have fixed volumes

-Cannot be compressed

Liquids:
-Have no fixed shape

-Take the shape of containers

-Have fixed volumes

-Cannot be compressed

Gases:

-Have no fixed shape

-Take the shape of containers

-Have no fixed volume

-Fill up the space of containers

-Can be compressed
Particulate model of matter is used to explain the differences of three states by their difference in their movement and the arrangement of the particles.

Particulate model of solids

The particles in a solid:

-are strongly attracted to one another

-are packed closely together
-are arranged in a fixed, regular pattern

-can only vibrate about their fixed positions

Particulate model of liquids

The particles in a liquid:

-are attracted to one another
-are packed closely together

-not arranged in a fixed, regular pattern

-can move over short distances

Particulate model of gases

The particles in a gas:
-are weakly attracted to one another

-are far apart from one another

-can move freely in any direction

Changes in state of matter

Melting:

When a solid is strongly heated, the particles gain energy and vibrate more vigorously in their fixed positions.When the particles gain enough energy, they break free from each other and move about randomly. Although the particles are no longer held in their fixed positions, they are still close together.

Freezing:

When a liquid is cooled, the particles lose energy and move about more slowly. As the temperature falls, the particles move more slowly until the force of attraction allow them to return to their fixed positions. The substance has changed from a liquid to solid.

Boiling:

When a liquid is heated, the particles gain more energy and move about more vigorously. When the particles have enough energy,they break free from one another. The particles become randomly arranged, spaced far apart and moving at high speeds.

Condensation:

When a gas is cooled, the particles lose energy and they move about less vigorously and at lower speeds. As the temperature falls,the particles lose more energy until they are close enough to be attracted to one another. The substance has changed from a gas to a liquid.

Heating curves(solid-liquid)

-Ice starts to melt at its melting point.

-Temperature remains constant over a period of time.*

-A mixture of solid and liquid exist during the process.

-Temperature will continue to rise once all the ice has changed to water.

Heating curves(liquid-gas)

-Water starts to boil at 100 degrees.

-temperature remains constant.*

-A mixture of liquid and gas exist during the process.

-Temperature will continue to rise as the heating continues.

Cooling curves(liquid-solid)

-The liquid is cooled.

-Temperature drops until the substance reaches its freezing point.

-The liquid freezes into solid state.

-Temperature remains constant**

-A mixture of liquid and solid exist in the process.

*Heat is used to overcome the forces of attraction holding the particles together.

**Heat energy is released as strong attractions are formed between particles to hold them together in a crystal lattice

30th September 2010

Making our own DNA

Today, we went in depth into DNA. We went through that DNA uses a code to form different types of proteins to make different tissues or organs. The DNA code is the same as words as both make use of letters and when one letter is changed, the whole meaning is different. But this DNA code has a special name called condons. Codons are instructions to make different types of proteins. Alot of codons add up to form DNA. Codons makes use of 4 different letters(A, T, C, G)and only has a combination of 3 letters. The letters A, T, C and G have a special name known as Nitrogenou Bases. A stands for adenine, T stands for thymine, C stands for cytosine and G stands for guanine. For example, a single strand DNA may be like:

TAG CCG CGT TAG ACG TGA

DNA comes in a pair but the other half is complimentary of the original one. So A will always go with T and G will always go with C. So the complimentary strand of the single strand DNA above is like that:

ATC GGC GCA ATC TGC ACT

The double stranded DNA will twist into something like a spiral staircase withn a hollow interior. This is called DNA double helix.

After going through the topic, we were tasked to make a DNA model using stickers and 2 wires. We were given a total of 20 stickers. And on 5 stickers per letter(A, T, C, G), we were required to write a letter on both ends of the sticker. Then we pasted the stickers on the wires following the rule: A goes with T and G goes with C. And this is how my DNA looks like.

29th September 2010

Viewing DNA of a fruit

The lesson before this one, Mdm Riza told each of us to bring a either a banana or a strawberry as we needed to conduct a practical which was extracting DNA. On that day itself, although Mdm Riza emphasized to only bring bananas or strawberries, Alot of us bought different variety of fruits. These included apples, guavas, watermelons and others. Before conducting the practical, we were introduced to the topic DNA. We also got to listen to the DNA song.

Here are some things we went through:

- What does DNA stand for?

DNA stands for Deoxyribonucleic acid

-What is the function of DNA?

It contains genetic materials that are used to make protein

Where is DNA found?

Inside the nucleus of every cell.

- What are proteins for?

To make different organs and tissues.

Here are the steps for viewing the DNA of the fruit:

1) Use about 1/4 of the fruit.

2) Place the fruit inside a ziplock bag.

3) Mash it up until there are no big pieces left. (to break down the cell membrane)

4) Add in 1/2 a teaspoon of salt and 2 teaspoon of detergent. (to break down the nucleus wall)

5) Continue mashing it.

6) Let it settle for a while.

7) Pour a bit of it into a cylinder. Make sure no big pieces flow out.

8) Tilt the cylinder to 45 degrees and slowly pour in 10ml of alcohol.

This is how my DNA looks like:

27th September 2010

Viewing our cheek cells under the microscope!
Today, we started off the lesson by going through the notes about cells. We went through some examples of different tissues and organs. Afterwards, we went on to do a practical experiment. The experiment was about viewing our cheek cells under the microscope.

Here are the steps:

1) Using a toothpick, gently scrape the inside of your cheek
2) Spread the specimen on the glass slide.
3) Let it dry for about a minute.

4) Put a drop of iodine over the specimen.

5) Carefully place a piece of cover slip over the specimen.

6) Place the slide on the stage of the microscope

7) Adjust the coarse focus knob and objective lens to make the specimen clear for viewing.

1) Scrape cheek gently

2) Spread over slide

3) add a drop of iodine

4) cover specimen with cover slip

5) Place specimen under microscope

6)What you will expect to see: